Trends in drug testing in oral fluid and hair as alternative matrices

Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest; •• of considerable interest

References

• 1 DRUID project. www.druid-project.eu.
  Google Scholar
• 2 Pragst F, Balikova MA. State of the art in hair analysis for detection of drug and alcohol abuse. Clin. Chim. Acta 370(1–2), 17–49 (2006).• Overviews the basics and the applications of hair analysis.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 3 Madry MM, Steuer AE, Binz TM, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T. Systematic investigation of the incorporation mechanisms of zolpidem in fingernails. Drug Test. Anal. 6(6), 533–541 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 4 Gray T, Huestis M. Bioanalytical procedures for monitoring in utero drug exposure. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 388(7), 1455–1465 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 5 Gosselin M, Wille SMR, Ramirez-Fernandez M et al. Entomotoxicology, experimental set-up and interpretation for forensic toxicologists. Forensic Sci. Int. 208(1–3), 1–9 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 6 Kronstrand R, Nystrom I, Forsman M, Kall K. Hair analysis for drugs in driver's license regranting. A Swedish pilot study. Forensic Sci. Int. 196(1–3), 55–58 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 7 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Guidelines for the Forensic Analysis of Drugs Facilitating Sexual Assault and Other Criminal Acts (2011).
  Google Scholar
• 8 Tsanaclis LM, Wicks JFC, Chasin AM. Workplace drug testing, different matrices different objectives. Drug Test. Anal. 4(2), 83–88 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 9 Langel K, Engblom C, Pehrsson A, Gunnar T, Ariniemi K, Lillsunde P. Drug testing in oral fluid – evaluation of sample collection devices. J. Anal. Toxicol. 32(6), 393–401 (2008).• Evaluation of recovery of different drugs in a range of commericial available oral fluid (OF) collection devices.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 10 Lee D, Milman G, Schwope DM, Barnes AJ, Gorelick DA, Huestis MA. Cannabinoid stability in authentic oral fluid after controlled cannabis smoking. Clin. Chem. 58(7), 1101–1109 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 11 Wille SMR, Di Fazio V, Toennes SW, Van Wel JHP, Ramaekers JG, Samyn N. Evaluation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol detection using DrugWipe5S^® screening and oral fluid quantification after Quantisal™ collection for roadside drug detection via a controlled study with chronic cannabis users. Drug Test. Anal. doi:10.1002/dta.1660 (2014) (Epub ahead of print).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 12 Aps JKM, Martens LC. Review: the physiology of saliva and transfer of drugs into saliva. Forensic Sci. Int. 150(2–3), 119–131 (2005).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 13 Wille SMR, Di Fazio V, Ramírez-Fernandez M, Kummer N, Samyn N. Driving under the influence of cannabis: pitfalls, validation, and quality control of a UPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of tetrahydrocannabinol in oral fluid collected with StatSure, Quantisal, or Certus collector. Ther. Drug Monit. 35(1), 101–111 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 14 Lee D, Huestis MA. Current knowledge on cannabinoids in oral fluid. Drug Test. Anal. 6(1–2), 88–111 (2014).•• Thorough discussion of all aspects (e.g., OF screening, confirmation, stability, cut-off and markers) of cannabis detection in OF.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 15 Kneisel S, Speck M, Moosmann B, Auwärter V. Stability of 11 prevalent synthetic cannabinoids in authentic neat oral fluid samples: glass versus polypropylene containers at different temperatures. Drug Test. Anal. 5(7), 602–606 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 16 Wille SMR, Samyn N, Ramírez-Fernández M, De Boeck G. Evaluation of on-site oral fluid screening using Drugwipe-5+^®, RapidSTAT^® and Drug Test 5000^® for the detection of drugs of abuse in drivers. Forensic Sci. Int. 198(1–3), 2–6 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 17 Strano-Rossi S, Castrignanò E, Anzillotti L et al. Evaluation of four oral fluid devices (DDS^®, Drugtest 5000^®, Drugwipe 5+^® and RapidSTAT^®) for on-site monitoring drugged driving in comparison with UHPLC–MS/MS analysis. Forensic Sci. Int. 221(1–3), 70–76 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 18 Desrosiers NA, Lee D, Schwope DM et al. On-site test for cannabinoids in oral fluid. Clin. Chem. 58(10), 1418–1425 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 19 Blencowe T et al. Analytical evaluation of oral fluid screening devices and preceding selection procedures (2014). www.druid-project.eu/Druid/EN/deliverables-list/downloads/Deliverable_3_2_2.pdf?_blob=publicationFile.
  Google Scholar
• 20 Wille SMR, Raes E, Lillsunde P et al. Relationship between oral fluid and blood concentrations of drugs of abuse in drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. Ther. Drug Monit. 31(4), 511–519 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 21 Crouch DJ. Oral fluid collection: the neglected variable in oral fluid testing. Forensic Sci. Int. 150(2–3), 165–173 (2005).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 22 Chiou W, Pu F. Creatinine VIII: saliva levels of endogenous “true” creatinine in normal subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther 25(6), 777–782 (1979).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 23 Lebeau MA, Montgomery MA, Brewer JD. The role of variations in growth rate and sample collection on interpreting results of segmental analyses of hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 210(1–3), 110–116 (2011).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 24 Dussy F, Carson N, Hangartner S, Briellmann T. Is one hair lock really representative. Drug Test. Anal. 6(1), 5–8 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 25 Wennig R. Potential problems with the interpretation of hair analysis results. Forensic Sci. Int. 107(1–3), 5–12 (2000).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 26 Potsch L, Skopp G. Stability of opiates in hair fibers after exposure to cosmetic treatment. Forensic Sci. Int. 81(2–3), 95–102 (1996).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 27 Martins Ferreira L, Binz T, Yegles M. The influence of ethanol containing cosmetics on ethyl glucuronide concentration in hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1–3), 123–125 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 28 Morini L, Zucchella A, Polettini A, Politi L, Groppi A. Effect of bleaching on ethyl glucuronide in hair: an in vitro experiment. Forensic Sci. Int. 198(1–3), 23–27 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 29 Sporkert F, Kharbouche H, Augsburger MP, Klemm C, Baumgartner MR. Positive EtG findings in hair as a result of a cosmetic treatment. Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1–3), 97–100 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 30 Suesse S, Pragst F, Mieczkowski T et al. Practical experiences in application of hair fatty acid ethyl esters and ethyl glucuronide for detection of chronic alcohol abuse in forensic cases. Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1–3), 82–91 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 31 Tsanaclis L, Wicks JFC. Patterns in drug use in the United Kingdom as revealed through analysis of hair in a large population sample. Forensic Sci. Int. 170(2–3), 121–128 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 32 Kerekes I, Yegles M, Grimm U, Wennig R. Ethyl glucuronide determination: head hair versus non-head hair. Alcohol Alcohol. 44(1), 62–66 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 33 Pianta A, Liniger B, Baumgartner MR. Ethyl glucuronide in scalp and non-head hair: an intra-individual comparison. Alcohol Alcohol. 48(3), 295–302 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 34 Pirro V, Di Corcia D, Pellegrino S, Vincenti M, Sciutteri B, Salomone A. A study of distribution of ethyl glucuronide in different keratin matrices. Forensic Sci. Int. 210(1–3), 271–277 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 35 Kintz P, Villain M, Vallet E, Etter M, Salquebre G, Cirimele V. Ethyl glucuronide: unusual distribution between head hair and pubic hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 176(1), 87–90 (2008).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 36 Lee S, Han E, In S, Choi H, Chung H, Chung KH. Analysis of pubic hair as an alternative specimen to scalp hair: a contamination issue. Forensic Sci. Int. 206(1–3), 19–21 (2011).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 37 Schräder J, Rothe M, Pragst F. Ethyl glucuronide concentrations in beard hair after a single alcohol dose: evidence for incorporation in hair root. Int. J. Legal Med. 126(5), 791–799 (2012).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 38 Remane D, Wissenbach DK, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Systematic investigation of ion suppression and enhancement effects of fourteen stable-isotope-labeled internal standards by their native analogues using atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization and electrospray ionization and the relevance for multi-analyte liquid chromatographic/mass spectrometric procedures. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 24(7), 859–867 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 39 Souza DZ, Boehl PO, Comiran E et al. Determination of amphetamine-type stimulants in oral fluid by solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Acta 696(1–2), 67–76 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 40 Coulter C, Garnier M, Moore C. Analysis of tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolite, 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid, in oral fluid using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 36(6), 413–417 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 41 Lee P, Chang Y-J, Lin K-L, Chang Y-Z. Simultaneous determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in oral fluid using isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 402(2), 851–859 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 42 Fritch D, Blum K, Nonnemacher S, Kardos K, Buchhalter AR, Cone EJ. Barbiturate detection in oral fluid, plasma, and urine. Ther. Drug Monit. 33(1), 72–79 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 43 Scheidweiler K, Himes S, Chen X, Liu H-F, Huestis M. 11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol quantification in human oral fluid by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 405(18), 6019–6027 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 44 He X, Kozak M, Nimkar S. Ultra-sensitive measurements of 11-nor-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid in oral fluid by microflow liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry using a benchtop quadrupole/orbitrap mass spectrometer. Anal. Chem. 84(18), 7643–7647 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 45 Raes E. Evaluation of rapid point-of-collection oral fluid testing devices. In: Rosita-2 project Final Report. Verstraete AG (Ed.). Academia Press, Gent, Belgium, 257 (2006).
  Google Scholar
• 46 Nieddu M, Burrai L, Trignano C, Boatto G. Evaluation of commercial multi-drug oral fluid devices to identify 39 new amphetamine-designer drugs. Legal Med. 16(2), 106–109 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 47 Kintz P (Ed.). Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, USA (2007).
  Google Scholar
• 48 Vincenti M, Salomone A, Gerace E, Pirro V. Role of LC–MS/MS in hair testing for the determination of common drugs of abuse and other psychoactive drugs. Bioanalysis 5(15), 1919–1938 (2013).
  CASGoogle Scholar
• 49 Stout PR, Ruth JA. Comparison of in vivo and in vitro deposition of rhodamine and fluorescein in hair. Drug Metab. Dispos. 26(10), 943–948 (1998).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 50 Baumgartner MR, Guglielmello R, Fanger M, Kraemer T. Analysis of drugs of abuse in hair: evaluation of the immunochemical method VMA-T vs. LC–MS/MS or GC–MS. Forensic Sci. Int. 215(1–3), 56–59 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 51 Pichini S, Garcia-Algar O, Alvarez A et al. Assessment of unsuspected exposure to drugs of abuse in children from a mediterranean city by hair testing. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 11(2), 2288–2298 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 52 Stramesi C, Vignali C, Groppi A et al. The standardization of results on hair testing for drugs of abuse: an interlaboratory exercise in Lombardy Region, Italy. Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1–3), 101–105 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 53 Musshoff F, Kirschbaum KM, Graumann K, Herzfeld C, Sachs H, Madea B. Evaluation of two immunoassay procedures for drug testing in hair samples. Forensic Sci. Int. 215(1–3), 60–63 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 54 Thieme D, Sachs H. Examination of a long-term clozapine administration by high resolution segmental hair analysis. Forensic Sci. Int. 166(2–3), 110–114 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 55 Porta T, Grivet C, Kraemer T, Varesio E, Hopfgartner G. Single hair cocaine consumption monitoring by mass spectrometric imaging. Anal. Chem. 83(11), 4266–4272 (2011).• First application of a mass spectrometric imaging technique for single hair analysis.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 56 Miyaguchi H, Takahashi H, Ohashi T et al. Rapid analysis of methamphetamine in hair by micropulverized extraction and microchip-based competitive ELISA. Forensic Sci. Int. 184(1–3), 1–5 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 57 Favretto D, Pascali JP, Tagliaro F. New challenges and innovation in forensic toxicology: focus on the “New Psychoactive Substances”. J. Chromatogr. A 1287(0), 84–95 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 58 Rust KY, Baumgartner MR, Dally AM, Kraemer T. Prevalence of new psychoactive substances: a retrospective study in hair. Drug Test. Anal. 4(6), 402–408 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 59 Pragst F, Broecker S, Hastedt M et al. Methadone and illegal drugs in hair from children with parents in maintenance treatment or suspected for drug abuse in a German community. Ther. Drug Monit. 35(6), 737–752 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 60 Koster RA, Alffenaar JW, Greijdanus B, Vandernagel JE, Uges DR. Fast and highly selective LC-MS/MS screening for THC and 16 other abused drugs and metabolites in human hair to monitor patients for drug abuse. Ther. Drug Monit. 36(2), 234–243 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 61 Crunelle CL, Yegles M, Nuijs ALNV et al. Hair ethyl glucuronide levels as a marker for alcohol use and abuse: a review of the current state of the art. Drug Alcohol Depend. 134, 1–11 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 62 Montesano C, Johansen SS, Nielsen MKK. Validation of a method for the targeted analysis of 96 drugs in hair by UPLC–MS/MS. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 88, 295–306 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 63 Hutter M, Kneisel S, Auwärter V, Neukamm MA. Determination of 22 synthetic cannabinoids in human hair by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B 903(0), 95–101 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 64 Broecker S, Herre S, Pragst F. General unknown screening in hair by liquid chromatography–hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC–QTOF-MS). Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1–3), 68–81 (2012).• Protocol for unknown screening for systematic toxicological hair analysis by LC–MS.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 65 Kidwell DA, Smith FP. Passive exposure, decontamination procedures, cutoffs, and bias: pitfalls in the interpretation of hair analysis results for cocaine use. In: Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair. Kintz P (Ed.). Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 25–72 (2007).
  Google Scholar
• 66 Kronstrand R, Scott K. Drug incorporation into hair. In: Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair.Kintz P (Ed.). Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1–24 (2007).
  Google Scholar
• 67 Miki A, Katagi M, Kamata T et al. MALDI-TOF and MALDI-FTICR imaging mass spectrometry of methamphetamine incorporated into hair. J. Mass Spectrom. 46(4), 411–416 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 68 Clarke J, Wilson JF. Proficiency testing (external quality assessment) of drug detection in oral fluid. Forensic Sci. Int. 150(2–3), 161–164 (2005).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 69 Ventura M, Ventura R, Pichini S et al. ORALVEQ: external quality assessment scheme of drugs of abuse in oral fluid: results obtained in the first round performed in 2007. Forensic Sci. Int. 182(1–3), 35–40 (2008).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 70 Ventura M, Pichini S, Ventura R et al. Stability of drugs of abuse in oral fluid collection devices with purpose of external quality assessment schemes. Ther. Drug Monit. 31(2), 277–280 (2009).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 71 Wille SR, Peters F, Fazio V, Samyn N. Practical aspects concerning validation and quality control for forensic and clinical bioanalytical quantitative methods. Accred. Qual. Assur. 16(6), 279–292 (2011).
  Google Scholar
• 72 Cooper G, Kronstrand R, Kintz P. Society of Hair Testing guidelines for drug testing in hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1–3), 20–24 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 73 Ventura M, Stramesi C, Pichini S et al. HAIRVEQ 2006: evolution of laboratories’ performance after different educational actions. Forensic Sci. Int. 176(1), 2–8 (2008).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 74 Lee VWM, Cheng JYK, Cheung STC, Wong Y-C, Sin DWM. The first international proficiency test on ketamine and norketamine in hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 219(1–3), 272–277 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 75 Turfus SC, Beyer J, Gerostamoulos D, Drummer OH. A comparison of the performance of quality controls prepared from spiked, fortified and authentic hair for ethyl glucuronide analysis. Forensic Sci. Int. 232(1–3), 60–66 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 76 Mönch B, Becker R, Jung C, Nehls I. The homogeneity testing of EtG in hair reference materials: a high-throughput procedure using GC–NCI–MS. Forensic Sci. Int. 226(1–3), 202–207 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 77 Desrosiers N, Barnes A, Hartman R et al. Oral fluid and plasma 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and metabolite correlation after controlled oral MDMA administration. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 405(12), 4067–4076 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 78 Lee D, Vandrey R, Milman G et al. Oral fluid/plasma cannabinoid ratios following controlled oral THC and smoked cannabis administration. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 405(23), 7269–7279 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 79 Department of Health and Human Services. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Proposed Revisions to Mandatory Guidelines for Federal Workplace Drug Testing Programs. 69, FR 19673 (2004).
  Google Scholar
• 80 Belgian Parlement. Loi relative à l'introduction des tests salivaires en matière de drogues dans la circulation/wet tot invoering van speekseltesten op drugs in het verkeer. Moniteur Belge/Belgisch Staatsblad 31 Juillet/31 Juli (2009).
  Google Scholar
• 81 Australian Standard^®. Procedures for specimen collection and the detection and quantitation of drugs in oral fluid, AS4760–2006 (2014). www.standards.org.au.
  Google Scholar
• 82 Parlement of Spain. Boletín oficial del estado, n° 85, 29508–29528 (2014). www.boe.es.
  Google Scholar
• 83 Moore C, Coulter C, Uges D et al. Cannabinoids in oral fluid following passive exposure to marijuana smoke. Forensic Sci. Int. 212(1–3), 227–230 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 84 Niedbala RS, Kardos KW, Fritch DF et al. Passive cannabis smoke exposure and oral fluid testing. II. Two studies of extreme cannabis smoke exposure in a motor vehicle. J. Anal. Toxicol. 29(7), 607–615 (2005).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 85 Anizan S, Milman G, Desrosiers N, Barnes A, Gorelick D, Huestis M. Oral fluid cannabinoid concentrations following controlled smoked cannabis in chronic frequent and occasional smokers. Anal. Bioanal. Chem 405(26), 8451–8461 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 86 Lee D, Karschner EL, Milman G, Barnes AJ, Goodwin RS, Huestis MA. Can oral fluid cannabinoid testing monitor medication compliance and/or cannabis smoking during oral THC and oromucosal Sativex administration? Drug Alcohol Depend. 130(1–3), 68–76 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 87 Wong RC, Tran M, Tung JK. Oral fluid drug tests: effects of adulterants and foodstuffs. Forensic Sci. Int. 150(2–3), 175–180 (2005).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 88 Hartwig S, Auwärter V, Pragst F. Fatty acid ethyl esters in scalp, pubic, axillary, beard and body hair as markers for alcohol misuse. Alcohol Alcohol. 38(2), 163–167 (2003).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 89 Pragst F, Rothe M, Spiegel K, Sporkert F. Illegal and therapeutic drug concentrations in hair segments – timetable of drug exposure? Forensic Sci. Rev. 10(2), 81–111 (1998).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 90 Appenzeller BMR, Schuman M, Yegles M, Wennig R. Ethyl glucuronide concentration in hair is not influenced by pigmentation. Alcohol Alcohol. 42(4), 326–327 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 91 Kronstrand R, Forstberg-Peterson S, Kagedal B, Ahlner J, Larson G. Codeine concentration in hair after oral administration is dependent on melanin content. Clin. Chem. 45(9), 1485–1494 (1999).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 92 Scheidweiler KB, Cone EJ, Moolchan ET, Huestis MA. Dose-related distribution of codeine, cocaine, and metabolites into human hair following controlled oral codeine and subcutaneous cocaine administration. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 313(2), 909–915 (2005).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 93 Høiseth G, Morini L, Ganss R, Nordal K, Mørland J. Higher levels of hair ethyl glucuronide in patients with decreased kidney function. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 37, E14–E16 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 94 Thieme D, Rolf B, Sachs H, Schmid D. Correlation of inter-individual variations of amitriptyline metabolism examined in hairs with CYP2C19 and CYP2D6 polymorphisms. Int. J. Legal Med. 122(2), 149–155 (2008).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 95 O'brien L, Baumer C, Thieme D, Sachs H, Koren G. Changes in antidepressant metabolism in pregnancy evidenced by metabolic ratios in hair: a novel approach. Forensic Sci. Int. 196(1–3), 93–96 (2010).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 96 Romano G, Barbera N, Lombardo I. Hair testing for drugs of abuse: evaluation of external cocaine contamination and risk of false positives. Forensic Sci. Int. 123(2–3), 119–129 (2001).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 97 Poetzsch M, Baumgartner MR, Steuer AE, Kraemer T. Segmental hair analysis for differentiation of tilidine intake from external contamination using LC-ESI-MS/MS and MALDI-MS/MS imaging. Drug Test. Anal. DOI:10.1002/dta.1674 (2014) (Epub ahead of print).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 98 Madry MM, Rust KY, Guglielmello R, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T. Metabolite to parent drug concentration ratios in hair for the differentiation of tramadol intake from external contamination and passive exposure. Forensic Sci. Int. 223(1–3), 330–334 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 99 Hoelzle C, Scheufler F, Uhl M, Sachs H, Thieme D. Application of discriminant analysis to differentiate between incorporation of cocaine and its congeners into hair and contamination. Forensic Sci. Int. 176(1), 13–18 (2008).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 100 Romano G, Barbera N, Spadaro G, Valenti V. Determination of drugs of abuse in hair: evaluation of external heroin contamination and risk of false positives. Forensic Sci. Int. 131(2–3), 98–102 (2003).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 101 Moosmann B, Roth N, Auwärter V. Hair analysis for THCA-A, THC and CBN after passive in vivo exposure to marijuana smoke. Drug Test. Anal. 6(1–2), 119–125 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 102 Chu M, Gerostamoulos D, Beyer J, Rodda L, Boorman M, Drummer OH. The incidence of drugs of impairment in oral fluid from random roadside testing. Forensic Sci. Int. 215(1–3), 28–31 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 103 Bosker W et al. Effects of stimulant drugs on actual and stimulated driving (2014). www.druid-project.eu/Druid/EN/deliverables-list/downloads/Deliverable_1_2_1.pdf?_blob=publicationFile.
  Google Scholar
• 104 Hargutt V, Knoche A. Driving under the influence of alcohol, illicit drugs and medicines. Risk estimations from different methodological approaches (2014). www.druid-project.eu/Druid/EN/deliverables-list/downloads/Deliverable_1_3_1.pdf?_blob=publicationFile.
  Google Scholar
• 105 Grotenhermen F, Leson G, Berghaus G et al. Developing limits for driving under cannabis. Addiction 102(12), 1910–1917 (2007).• Discusses the scientific/legal considerations when developing ‘danger cut-offs’ for driving under the influence of drugs.
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 106 Gjerde H, Verstraete AG. Estimating equivalent cutoff thresholds for drugs in blood and oral fluid using prevalence regression: a study of tetrahydrocannabinol and amphetamine. Forensic Sci. Int. 212(1–3), e26–e30 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 107 Gjerde H, Langel K, Favretto D, Verstraete AG. Estimation of equivalent cutoff thresholds in blood and oral fluid for drug prevalence studies. J. Anal. Toxicol. 38(2), 92–98 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 108 Kuypers KPC, Legrand S-A, Ramaekers JG, Verstraete AG. A case-control study estimating accident risk for alcohol, medicines and illegal drugs. PLoS ONE 7(8), e43496 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 109 European Workplace Drug Testing Society. Guidelines for Oral Fluid, version 001 (2014). www.ewdts.org/guidelines.html.
  Google Scholar
• 110 Bush DM. The U.S. Mandatory Guidelines for Federal Workplace Drug Testing Programs: current status and future considerations. Forensic Sci. Int. 174(2–3), 111–119 (2008).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 111 Houwing S, Smink BE, Legrand S-A, Mathijssen RPM, Verstraete AG, Brookhuis KA. Repeatability of oral fluid collection methods for THC measurement. Forensic Sci. Int. 223(1–3), 266–272 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 112 Anizan S, Huestis MA. The potential role of oral fluid in antidoping testing. Clin. Chem. 60(2), 307–322 (2014).• Overview of the detection of several drugs in OF and where we stand today.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 113 Langman LJ. The use of oral fluid for therapeutic drug management. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1098(1), 145–166 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 114 Conermann T, Gosalia AR, Kabazie AJ et al. Utility of oral fluid in compliance monitoring of opioid medications. Pain Physician 17, 63–70 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 115 Concheiro M, Gray T, Shakleya D, Huestis M. High-throughput simultaneous analysis of buprenorphine, methadone, cocaine, opiates, nicotine, and metabolites in oral fluid by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 398(2), 915–924 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 116 Tuyay J, Coulter C, Rodrigues W, Moore C. Disposition of opioids in oral fluid: Importance of chromatography and mass spectral transitions in LC-MS/MS. Drug Test. Anal. 4(6), 395–401 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 117 Josefsson M, Rydberg I. Determination of methylphenidate and ritalinic acid in blood, plasma and oral fluid from adolescents and adults using protein precipitation and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry – a method applied on clinical and forensic investigations. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 55(5), 1050–1059 (2011).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 118 Fisher DS, Partridge SJ, Handley SA, Couchman L, Morgan PE, Flanagan RJ. LC–MS/MS of some atypical antipsychotics in human plasma, serum, oral fluid and haemolysed whole blood. Forensic Sci. Int. 229(1–3), 145–150 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 119 Jang M, Chang H, Yang W et al. Development of an LC–MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of 25 benzodiazepines and zolpidem in oral fluid and its application to authentic samples from regular drug users. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 74, 213–222 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 120 Hsu Y-C, Chen B-G, Yang S-C et al. Methadone concentrations in blood, plasma, and oral fluid determined by isotope-dilution gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 405(12), 3921–3928 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 121 Das R, Agrawal YK. Simultaneous monitoring of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in human urine, plasma and oral fluid by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 51(2), 146–154 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 122 Kintz P, Villain M, Cirimele V. Hair analysis for drug detection. Ther. Drug Monit. 28(3), 442–446 (2006).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 123 Kintz P. Toxicological Aspects of Drug-Facilitated Crimes. Elsevier (2014).
  Google Scholar
• 124 Carnevale A, Aleksa K, Goodyer CG, Koren G. Investigating the use of hair to assess polybrominated diphenyl ether exposure retrospectively. Ther. Drug Monit. 36(2), 244–251 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 125 Appenzeller BMR, Tsatsakis AM. Hair analysis for biomonitoring of environmental and occupational exposure to organic pollutants: state of the art, critical review and future needs. Toxicol. Lett. 210(2), 119–140 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 126 Schummer C, Salquèbre G, Briand O, Millet M, Appenzeller BMR. Determination of farm workers’ exposure to pesticides by hair analysis. Toxicol. Lett. 210(2), 203–210 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 127 Haller DL, Schiano T, Lewis D. Is there a better way to monitor abstinence among substance abusers awaiting transplantation? Curr. Opin. Organ Transplant. 17(2), 180–187 (2012).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 128 Müller A, Jungen H, Iwersen-Bergmann S, Sterneck M, Andresen-Streichert H. Analysis of cyclosporin A in hair samples from liver transplanted patients. Ther. Drug Monit. 35(4), 450–458 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 129 Stalder T, Kirschbaum C. Analysis of cortisol in hair – state of the art and future directions. Brain Behav. Immun. 26(7), 1019–1029 (2012).• Gateway to future application of hair testing for stress prevention or other routine medical monitoring.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 130 Russell E, Koren G, Rieder M, Van Uum SHM. The detection of cortisol in human sweat: implications for measurement of cortisol in hair. Ther. Drug Monit. 36(1), 30–34 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 131 Hulka LM, Eisenegger C, Preller KH et al. Altered social and non-social decision-making in recreational and dependent cocaine users. Psychol. Med.1–14 (2013).
  Google Scholar
• 132 Vonmoos M, Hulka LM, Preller KH et al. Cognitive dysfunctions in recreational and dependent cocaine users: role of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, craving and early age at onset. Br. J. Psych. 203(1), 35–43 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 133 Vonmoos M, Hulka LM, Preller KH, Minder F, Baumgartner MR, Quednow BB. Cognitive impairment in cocaine users is drug-induced but partially reversible: evidence from a longitudinal study. Neuropsychopharmacology 39(9), 2200–2210 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar