Review

Hair as an alternative matrix in bioanalysis

Department of Sciences, Advanced Institute of Health Sciences – North (ISCS-N), CESPU, CRL, 1317, 4585–116 Gandra, PRD, Portugal

^‡These authors contributed equally

Search for more papers by this author

Juliana Faria^‡

Department of Sciences, Advanced Institute of Health Sciences – North (ISCS-N), CESPU, CRL, 1317, 4585–116 Gandra, PRD, Portugal

^‡These authors contributed equally

Search for more papers by this author

Félix Carvalho

REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Porto, Portugal

Search for more papers by this author

Madalena Pedro

Department of Sciences, Advanced Institute of Health Sciences – North (ISCS-N), CESPU, CRL, 1317, 4585–116 Gandra, PRD, Portugal

CEQUIMED, Centre of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Porto (CEQUIMED-UP), Portugal

Search for more papers by this author

Odília Queirós

Department of Sciences, Advanced Institute of Health Sciences – North (ISCS-N), CESPU, CRL, 1317, 4585–116 Gandra, PRD, Portugal

CBMA – Centre of Molecular & Environmental Biology, University of Minho, Portugal

Search for more papers by this author

Roxana Moreira

Department of Sciences, Advanced Institute of Health Sciences – North (ISCS-N), CESPU, CRL, 1317, 4585–116 Gandra, PRD, Portugal

CBMA – Centre of Molecular & Environmental Biology, University of Minho, Portugal

Search for more papers by this author

Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira^‡

Department of Legal Medicine & Forensic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Portugal.

Department of Diagnostic & Therapeutic Technologies, Polytechnic Health Institute – North, CESPU, CRL, Portugal

^‡These authors contributed equally

Search for more papers by this author

Email the corresponding author at ricardinis@sapo.pt

Published Online:16 Apr 2013https://doi.org/10.4155/bio.13.50

View article

Abstract

Alternative matrices are steadily gaining recognition as biological samples for toxicological analyses. Hair presents many advantages over traditional matrices, such as urine and blood, since it provides retrospective information regarding drug exposure, can distinguish between chronic and acute or recent drug use by segmental analysis, is easy to obtain, and has considerable stability for long periods of time. For this reason, it has been employed in a wide variety of contexts, namely to evaluate workplace drug exposure, drug-facilitated sexual assault, pre-natal drug exposure, anti-doping control, pharmacological monitoring and alcohol abuse. In this article, issues concerning hair structure, collection, storage and analysis are reviewed. The mechanisms of drug incorporation into hair are briefly discussed. Analytical techniques for simultaneous drug quantification in hair are addressed. Finally, representative examples of drug quantification using hair are summarized, emphasizing its potentialities and limitations as an alternative biological matrix for toxicological analyses.

Papers of special note have been highlighted as: ▪ of interest ▪▪ of considerable interest

References

1 Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Carvalho F, Duarte JA et al. Collection of biological samples in forensic toxicology. Toxicol. Mech. Methods20(7),363–414 (2010).▪▪ Extensive review on the general guidelines for the collection of biological samples for toxicological purposes.Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
2 Kintz P. Bioanalytical procedures for detection of chemical agents in hair in the case of drug-facilitated crimes. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.388(7),1467–1474 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
3 Cooper GA, Kronstrand R, Kintz P. Society of Hair Testing guidelines for drug testing in hair. Forensic Sci. Int.218(1–3),20–24 (2012).▪▪ Detailed review of the Society of Hair Testing updated guidelines for drug analysis in hair.Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
4 Gallardo E, Queiroz JA. The role of alternative specimens in toxicological analysis. Biomed. Chromatogr.22(8),795–821 (2008).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
5 Barroso M, Gallardo E, Queiroz JA. Bioanalytical methods for the determination of cocaine and metabolites in human biological samples. Bioanalysis1(5),977–1000 (2009).Link, CAS, Google Scholar
6 Barroso M, Gallardo E, Vieira DN, Queiroz JA, Lopez-Rivadulla M. Bioanalytical procedures and recent developments in the determination of opiates/opioids in human biological samples. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.400(6),1665–1690 (2011).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
7 Villain M, Cirimele V, Kintz P. Hair analysis in toxicology. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. CCLM/FESCC42(11),1265–1272 (2004).▪▪ Comprehensive review about the scope and applicability of hair testing.Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
8 Kintz P. Value of the concept of minimal detectable dosage in human hair. Forensic Sci. Int.218(1–3),28–30 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
9 Barroso M, Dias M, Vieira DN, Lopez-Rivadulla M, Queiroz JA. Simultaneous quantitation of morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, codeine, 6-acetylcodeine and tramadol in hair using mixed-mode solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.396(8),3059–3069 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
10 Kintz P. Value of hair analysis in postmortem toxicology. Forensic Sci. Int.142(2–3),127–134 (2004).▪ Comprehensive review that focuses on the advantages and potentialities of using hair as an alternative matrix for drug analysis.Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
11 Kintz P, Mangin P. Simultaneous determination of opiates, cocaine and major metabolites of cocaine in human hair by gas chromotography/mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Forensic Sci. Int.73(2),93–100 (1995).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
12 Bush DM. The U.S. Mandatory Guidelines for Federal Workplace Drug Testing Programs: current status and future considerations. Forensic Sci. Int.174(2–3),111–119 (2008).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
13 Caplan YH, Goldberger BA. Alternative specimens for workplace drug testing. J. Anal. Toxicol.25(5),396–399 (2001).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
14 Negrusz A, Gaensslen RE. Analytical developments in toxicological investigation of drug-facilitated sexual assault. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.376(8),1192–1197 (2003).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
15 Gray T, Huestis M. Bioanalytical procedures for monitoring in utero drug exposure. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.388(7),1455–1465 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
16 Lozano J, Garcia-Algar O, Vall O, De La Torre R, Scaravelli G, Pichini S. Biological matrices for the evaluation of in utero exposure to drugs of abuse. Ther. Drug Monit.29(6),711–734 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
17 Dumestre-Toulet V, Cirimele V, Ludes B, Gromb S, Kintz P. Hair analysis of seven bodybuilders for anabolic steroids, ephedrine, and clenbuterol. J. Forensic Sci.47(1),211–214 (2002).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
18 Bresson M, Cirimele V, Villain M, Kintz P. Doping control for metandienone using hair analyzed by gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci.836(1–2),124–128 (2006).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
19 Kintz P, Tracqui A, Mangin P. Pharmacological studies on meprobamate incorporation in human beard hair. Int J. Legal Med.105(5),283–287 (1993).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
20 Tracqui A, Kreissig P, Kintz P, Pouliquen A, Mangin P. Determination of amitriptyline in the hair of psychiatric patients. Hum. Exp. Toxicol.11(5),363–367 (1992).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
21 Uematsu T, Sato R, Suzuki K, Yamaguchi S, Nakashima M. Human scalp hair as evidence of individual dosage history of haloperidol: method and retrospective study. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.37(3),239–244 (1989).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
22 Pragst F, Auwaerter V, Sporkert F, Spiegel K. Analysis of fatty acid ethyl esters in hair as possible markers of chronically elevated alcohol consumption by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography–ass spectrometry (GC–S). Forensic Sci. Int.121(1–2),76–88 (2001).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
23 Agius R, Kintz P. Guidelines for European workplace drug and alcohol testing in hair. Drug Test. Anal.2(8),367–376 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
24 Headington JT. Transverse microscopic anatomy of the human scalp. A basis for a morphometric approach to disorders of the hair follicle. Arch. Dermatol.120(4),449–456 (1984).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
25 Montagna W, Van Scott E. The biology of hair growth. In: The Anatomy of the Hair Follicle. Montagna W, Ellis RA (Eds). Academic Press, NY, USA, 39–64 (1958).Google Scholar
26 Nakahara Y, Takahashi K, Kikura R. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. X. Effect of physicochemical properties of drugs on the incorporation rates into hair. Biol. Pharm. Bull.18(9),1223–1227 (1995).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
27 Ozeki H, Ito S, Wakamatsu K. Chemical characterization of melanins in sheep wool and human hair. Pigment Cell Res.9(2),51–57 (1996).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
28 Slawson MH, Wilkins DG, Rollins DE. The incorporation of drugs into hair: relationship of hair color and melanin concentration to phencyclidine incorporation. J. Anal. Toxicol.22(6),406–413 (1998).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
29 Harkey MR. Anatomy and physiology of hair. Forensic Sci. Int.63(1–3),9–18 (1993).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
30 Cooper GA. Hair testing is taking root. Ann. Clin. Biochem.48(Pt 6),516–530 (2011).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
31 Henderson GL. Mechanisms of drug incorporation into hair. Forensic Sci. Int.63(1–3),19–29 (1993).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
32 Baumgartner WA, Hill VA, Blahd WH. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. J. Forensic Sci.34,1433–1453 (1989).Crossref, Google Scholar
33 Lee S, Han E, Kim E et al. Simultaneous quantification of opiates and effect of pigmentation on its deposition in hair. Arch. Pharm. Res.33(11),1805–1811 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
34 Rollins DE, Wilkins DG, Krueger GG et al. The effect of hair color on the incorporation of codeine into human hair. J. Anal. Toxicol.27(8),545–551 (2003).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
35 Pragst F, Balikova MA. State of the art in hair analysis for detection of drug and alcohol abuse. Clin. Chim. Acta370(1–2),17–49 (2006).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
36 De La Torre R, Pichini S. Usefulness of sweat testing for the detection of cannabis smoke. Clin. Chem.50(11),1961–1962 (2004).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
37 Concheiro M, Shakleya DM, Huestis MA. Simultaneous analysis of buprenorphine, methadone, cocaine, opiates and nicotine metabolites in sweat by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.400(1),69–78 (2011).▪ Case-oriented article that emphasizes the value of retrospective studies using segmental hair analysis.Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
38 Kintz P. Segmental hair analysis can demonstrate external contamination in postmortem cases. Forensic Sci. Int.215(1–3),73–76 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
39 Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Carvalho F, Duarte JA, Proenca JB, Santos A, Magalhaes T. Clinical and forensic signs related to cocaine abuse. Curr. Drug Abuse Rev.5(1),64–83 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
40 Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Carvalho F, Moreira R et al. Clinical and forensic signs related to opioids abuse. Curr. Drug Abuse Rev.5(4),273–290 (2012).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
41 Barroso M, Dias M, Vieira DN, Queiroz JA, Lopez-Rivadulla M. Development and validation of an analytical method for the simultaneous determination of cocaine and its main metabolite, benzoylecgonine, in human hair by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom.22(20),3320–3326 (2008).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
42 Gouveia CA, Oliveira A, Pinho S et al. Simultaneous quantification of morphine and cocaine in hair samples from drug addicts by GC–EI/MS. Biomed. Chromatogr. BMC26(8),1041–1047 (2012).▪ Original article that describes a possible approach to identify external contamination situations, thus minimizing a major drawback of hair analysis.Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
43 Tsanaclis L, Wicks JF. Differentiation between drug use and environmental contamination when testing for drugs in hair. Forensic Sci. Int.176(1),19–22 (2008).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
44 Joseph RE, Su TP, Cone EJ. In vitro binding studies of drugs to hair: influence of melanin and lipids on cocaine binding to Caucasoid and Africoid hair. J. Analyt. Toxicol.20(6),338–344 (1996).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
45 Nakahara Y, Takahashi K, Shimamine M, Saitoh A. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. IV. Determination of total morphine and confirmation of 6-acetylmorphine in monkey and human hair by GC–MS. Arch. Toxicol.66(9),669–674 (1992).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
46 Kronstrand R, Scott K. Drug incorporation into hair. In: Analytical and Pratical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair. Kintz P (Ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA 1–24 (2007).Google Scholar
47 Nakahara Y, Takahashi K, Kikura R. Hair analysis for drug of abuse X. Effect of physicochemical properties of drugs on incorporation rates into hair. Biol. Pharmaceut. Bull.18(9),1223–1227 (1995).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
48 Lyden A, Larsson B, Lindquist NG. Studies on the melanin affinity of haloperidol. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther.259(2),230–243 (1982).Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
49 Cone EJ, Joseph R. Drug testing in hair. In: The Potential for Bias in Hair Testing for Drugs of Abuse. Kintz P (Ed.). CRC Press, FL, USA, 69–93 (1996).Google Scholar
50 Skopp G, Potsch L, Moeller MR. On cosmetically treated hair – aspects and pitfalls of interpretation. Forensic Sci. Int.84(1–3),43–52 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
51 Cirimele V, Kintz P, Mangin P. Detection and quantification of lorazepam in human hair by GC–MS/NCI in a case of traffic accident. Int. J. Legal Med.108(5),265–267 (1996).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
52 Bergfeld WF, Belsito DV, Marks JG Jr, Andersen FA. Safety of ingredients used in cosmetics. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.52(1),125–132 (2005).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
53 Kintz P, Cirimele V, Ludes B. Pharmacological criteria that can affect the detection of doping agents in hair. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),325–334 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
54 Boumba VA, Ziavrou KS, Vougiouklakis T. Hair as a biological indicator of drug use, drug abuse or chronic exposure to environmental toxicants. Int. J. Toxicol.25(3),143–163 (2006).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
55 Delauder SF, Kidwell DA. The incorporation of dyes into hair as a model for drug binding. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),93–104 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
56 Yegles M, Marson Y, Wennig R. Influence of bleaching on stability of benzodiazepines in hair. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),87–92 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
57 Jurado C, Kintz P, Menendez M, Repetto M. Influence of the cosmetic treatment of hair on drug testing. Int. J. Legal Med.110(3),159–163 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
58 Sen J. Human hair in personal identification and documenting drug and substance abuse. Anthropologist12(1),47–58 (2010).Crossref, Google Scholar
59 Rothe M, Pragst F, Thor S, Hunger J. Effect of pigmentation on the drug deposition in hair of grey-haired subjects. Forensic Sci. Int.84(1–3),53–60 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
60 Vignali C, Stramesi C, Vecchio M, Groppi A. Hair testing and self-report of cocaine use. Forensic Sci. Int.215(1–3),77–80 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
61 Kelly RC, Mieczkowski T, Sweeney SA, Bourland JA. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. Hair color and race differentials or systematic differences in drug preferences? Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),63–86 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
62 Polettini A, Cone EJ, Gorelick DA, Huestis MA. Incorporation of methamphetamine and amphetamine in human hair following controlled oral methamphetamine administration. Anal. Chim Acta726,35–43 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
63 Nakahara Y, Kikura R, Takahashi K. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. VIII. Effective extraction and determination of 6-acetylmorphine and morphine in hair with trifluoroacetic acid-methanol for the confirmation of retrospective heroin use by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Appl.657(1),93–101 (1994).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
64 Wennig R. Potential problems with the interpretation of hair analysis results. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),5–12 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
65 Jurado C, Sachs H. Proficiency test for the analysis of hair for drugs of abuse, organized by the Society of Hair Testing. Forensic Sci. Int.133(1–2),175–178 (2003).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
66 Musshoff F, Madea B. Analytical pitfalls in hair testing. Anal. Bioanal. Chem.388(7),1475–1494 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
67 Society of Hair Testing. Recommendations for hair testing in forensic cases. Forensic Sci. Int.145(2–3),83–84 (2004).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
68 Nakahara Y. Hair analysis for abused and therapeutic drugs. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl.733(1–2),161–180 (1999).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
69 Tagliaro F, Smith FP, De Battisti Z, Manetto G, Marigo M. Hair analysis, a novel tool in forensic and biomedical sciences: new chromatographic and electrophoretic/electrokinetic analytical strategies. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl.689(1),261–271 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
70 Kintz P. Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, USA (2007).Google Scholar
71 Pragst F, Sachs H, Kintz P. Hair analysis for cocaine continues to be a valuable tool in forensic and clinical toxicology. J. Anal. Toxicol.34(6),354–355; author reply 355–356 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
72 Baptista MJ, Monsanto PV, Pinho Marques EG et al. Hair analysis for delta(9)-THC, delta(9)-THC-COOH, CBN and CBD, by GC–MS-EI. Comparison with GC–MS-NCI for delta(9)-THC-COOH. Forensic Sci. Int.128(1–2),66–78 (2002).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
73 Favretto D, Vogliardi S, Stocchero G, Nalesso A, Tucci M, Ferrara SD. High performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry and micropulverized extraction for the quantification of amphetamines, cocaine, opioids, benzodiazepines, antidepressants and hallucinogens in 2.5 mg hair samples. J. Chromatogr. A1218(38),6583–6595 (2011).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
74 Kauert G, Rohrich J. Concentrations of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cocaine and 6-monoacetylmorphine in hair of drug abusers. Int J. Legal Med.108(6),294–299 (1996).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
75 Kronstrand R, Nystrom I, Strandberg J, Druid H. Screening for drugs of abuse in hair with ion spray LC-MS-MS. Forensic Sci. Int.145(2–3),183–190 (2004).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
76 Moller M, Aleksa K, Walasek P, Karaskov T, Koren G. Solid-phase microextraction for the detection of codeine, morphine and 6-monoacetylmorphine in human hair by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci. Int.196(1–3),64–69 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
77 Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA. Simultaneous quantification of opiates, cocaine, and metabolites in hair by LC-APCI–MS/MS. Anal. Chem.76(15),4358–4363 (2004).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
78 De Toledo FC, Yonamine M, De Moraes Moreau RL, Silva OA. Determination of cocaine, benzoylecgonine and cocaethylene in human hair by solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci.798(2),361–365 (2003).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
79 Uhl M. Tandem mass spectrometry. a helpful tool in hair analysis for the forensic expert. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),169–179 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
80 Kintz P. Drug Testing in Hair. CRC Press, FL, USA (1996).▪ Review on the chromatographic methodologies employed in drug quantification in hair.Google Scholar
81 Sachs H, Kintz P. Testing for drugs in hair: critical review of chromatographic procedures since 1992. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl.713(1),147–161 (1998).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
82 Romolo FS, Rotolo MC, Palmi I, Pacifici R, Lopez A. Optimized conditions for simultaneous determination of opiates, cocaine and benzoylecgonine in hair samples by GC–MS. Forensic Sci. Int.138(1–3),17–26 (2003).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
83 Cognard E, Rudaz S, Bouchonnet S, Staub C. Analysis of cocaine and three of its metabolites in hair by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry using ion-trap detection for CI/MS/MS. J. Chromatogr. B Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci.826(1–2),17–25 (2005).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
84 Guthery B, Bassindale T, Bassindale A, Pillinger CT, Morgan GH. Qualitative drug analysis of hair extracts by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A1217(26),4402–4410 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
85 Baumgartner AM, Jones PF, Baumgartner WA, Black CT. Radioimmunoassay of hair for determining opiate-abuse histories. J. Nucl. Med.20(7),748–752 (1979).Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
86 Hadidi KA, Almasad JK, Al-Nsour T, Abu-Ragheib S. Determination of tramadol in hair using solid phase extraction and GC–MS. Forensic Sci. Int.135(2),129–136 (2003).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
87 Gottardo R, Bortolotti F, De Paoli G, Pascali JP, Miksik I, Tagliaro F. Hair analysis for illicit drugs by using capillary zone electrophoresis-electrospray ionization-ion trap mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A1159(1–2),185–189 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
88 Gronholm M, Lillsunde P. A comparison between on-site immunoassay drug-testing devices and laboratory results. Forensic Sci. Int.121(1–2),37–46 (2001).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
89 Verstraete AG. Oral fluid testing for driving under the influence of drugs: history, recent progress and remaining challenges. Forensic Sci. Int.150(2–3),143–150 (2005).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
90 Barroso M, Dias M, Vieira DN, Lopez-Rivadulla M, Queiroz JA. Mixed-mode solid-phase extraction for sample cleanup in hair analysis for methadone and its main metabolite. Biomedical Chromatography24(11),1240–1246 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
91 Cordero R, Paterson S. Simultaneous quantification of opiates, amphetamines, cocaine and metabolites and diazepam and metabolite in a single hair sample using GC-MS. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci.850(1–2),423–431 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
92 Fernandez P, Lago M, Lorenzo RA, Carro AM, Bermejo AM, Tabernero MJ. Optimization of a rapid microwave-assisted extraction method for the simultaneous determination of opiates, cocaine and their metabolites in human hair. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci.877(18–19),1743–1750 (2009).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
93 Paterson S, Cordero R, Stearns E. Chronic drug use confirmed by hair analysis: its role in understanding both the medical cause of death and the circumstances surrounding the death. J. Forensic Legal Med.16(3),143–147 (2009).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
94 Morrison JF, Chesler SN, Yoo WJ, Selavka CM. Matrix and modifier effects in the supercritical fluid extraction of cocaine and benzoylecgonine from human hair. Anal. Chem.70(1),163–172 (1998).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
95 Niessen WMA. Principles and instrumentation of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. In: Current Practice of Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry. Niessen WMA (Ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc., NY, USA, 1–29 (2001).Google Scholar
96 Girod C, Staub C. Analysis of drugs of abuse in hair by automated solid-phase extraction, GC-EI–MS and GC ion trap-CI–MS. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),261–271 (2000).▪ Contains a detailed description of a representative example of simultaneous drug quantification in hair.Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
97 Barroso M, Costa S, Dias M, Vieira DN, Queiroz JA, Lopez-Rivadulla M. Analysis of phenylpiperazine-like stimulants in human hair as trimethylsilyl derivatives by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A1217(40),6274–6280 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
98 Montagna M, Stramesi C, Vignali C, Groppi A, Polettini A. Simultaneous hair testing for opiates, cocaine, and metabolites by GC–MS: a survey of applicants for driving licenses with a history of drug use. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),157–167 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
99 Nielsen MK, Johansen SS, Dalsgaard PW, Linnet K. Simultaneous screening and quantification of 52 common pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse in hair using UPLC-TOF–MS. Forensic Sci. Int.196(1–3),85–92 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
100 Musshoff F, Madea B. New trends in hair analysis and scientific demands on validation and technical notes. Forensic Sci. Int.165(2–3),204–215 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
101 Moreira PN, De Pinho PG, Baltazar MT, Bastos ML, Carvalho F, Dinis-Oliveira RJ. Quantification of paraquat in postmortem samples by gas chromatography–ion trap mass spectrometry and review of the literature. Biomed. Chromatogr.26(3),338–349 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
102 European Medicines Agency. Guidelines on Bioanalytical Method Validation. London, UK (2011).Google Scholar
103 Kintz P. Gas chromatographic analysis of nicotine and cotinine in hair. J. Chromatogr.580(1–2),347–353 (1992).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
104 Sachs H, Denk R, Raff I. Determination of dihydrocodeine in hair of opiate addicts by GC–MS. Int J. Legal Med.105(5),247–250 (1993).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
105 Nakahara Y, Kikura R, Yasuhara M, Mukai T. Hair analysis for drug abuse. XIV. Identification of substances causing acute poisoning using hair root. I. Methamphetamine. Forensic Sci. Int.84(1–3),157–164 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
106 Takayama N, Tanaka S, Hayakawa K. Determination of stimulants in a single human hair sample by high-performance liquid chromatographic method with chemiluminescence detection. Biomed. Chromatogr.11(1),25–28 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
107 Nakahara Y, Kikura R. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. XVIII. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) disposition in hair roots and use in identification of acute MDMA poisoning. Biol. Pharm. Bull.20(9),969–972 (1997).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
108 Graham K, Koren G, Klein J, Schneiderman J, Greenwald M. Determination of gestational cocaine exposure by hair analysis. JAMA262(23),3328–3330 (1989).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
109 Klein J, Chitayat D, Koren G. Hair analysis as a marker for fetal exposure to maternal smoking. N. Engl. J. Med.328(1),66–67 (1993).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
110 Kintz P, Kieffer I, Messer J, Mangin P. Nicotine analysis in neonates’ hair for measuring gestational exposure to tobacco. J. Forensic Sci.38(1),119–123 (1993).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
111 Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Magalhaes T. Children intoxications: what is abuse and what is not abuse. Trauma Violence Abuse14,113–132 (2013).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
112 Gaillard Y, Vayssette F, Balland A, Pepin G. Gas chromatographic–tandem mass spectrometric determination of anabolic steroids and their esters in hair. Application in doping control and meat quality control. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl.735(2),189–205 (1999).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
113 Thieme D, Grosse J, Sachs H, Mueller RK. Analytical strategy for detecting doping agents in hair. Forensic Sci. Int.107(1–3),335–345 (2000).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
114 Kintz P, Cirimele V, Ludes B. Discrimination of the nature of doping with 19-norsteroids through hair analysis. Clinical Chem.46(12),2020–2022 (2000).Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
115 Cirimele V, Tracqui A, Kintz P, Ludes B. First identification of prednisone in human hair by liquid chromatography–ionspray mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol.23(3),225–226 (1999).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
116 Gleixner A, Sauerwein H, Meyer HH. Detection of the anabolic beta 2-adrenoceptor agonist clenbuterol in human scalp hair by HPLC/EIA. Clin. Chem.42(11),1869–1871 (1996).Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
117 Kintz P. Consensus of the Society of Hair Testing on hair testing for chronic excessive alcohol consumption 2011. Forensic Sci. Int.218(1–3),2 (2012).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
118 Hall JA, Moore CB. Drug facilitated sexual assault – a review. J. Forensic Leg. Med.15(5),291–297 (2008).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
119 Payne-James J, Rogers D. Drug-facilitated sexual assault, ‘ladettes’ and alcohol. J. R. Soc. Med.95(7),326–327 (2002).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
120 Bechtel LK, Holstege CP. Criminal poisoning: drug-facilitated sexual assault. Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am.25(2),499–525; abstract x (2007).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
121 Kintz P, Villain M, Dumestre-Toulet V, Ludes B. Drug-facilitated sexual assault and analytical toxicology: the role of LC–MS/MS A case involving zolpidem. J. Clin. Forensic Med.12(1),36–41 (2005).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
122 Mcgregor MJ, Ericksen J, Ronald LA, Janssen PA, Van Vliet A, Schulzer M. Rising incidence of hospital-reported drug-facilitated sexual assault in a large urban community in Canada. Retrospective population-based study. Canadian J. Public Health95(6),441–445 (2004).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
123 Lebeau MA. Guidance for improved detection of drugs used to facilitate crimes. Ther. Drug Monit.30(2),229–233 (2008).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
124 Harper NS. Drug-facilitated sexual assault. In. Child Abuse and Neglect: Diagnosis, Treatment and Evidence. Jenny C (Ed.). Elsevier Inc., MI, USA, 118ndash;126 (2011).Google Scholar
125 Oral R, Bayman L, Assad A et al. Illicit drug exposure in patients evaluated for alleged child abuse and neglect. Pediatr. Emerg. Care27(6),490–495 (2011).Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar
126 Kintz P, Cirimele V, Jamey C, Ludes B. Testing for GHB in hair by GC–MS/MS after a single exposure. Application to document sexual assault. J. Forensic Sci.48(1),195–200 (2003).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
127 Frison G, Favretto D, Tedeschi L, Ferrara SD. Detection of thiopental and pentobarbital in head and pubic hair in a case of drug-facilitated sexual assault. Forensic Sci. Int.133(1–2),171–174 (2003).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
128 Kronstrand R, Nystrom I, Forsman M, Kall K. Hair analysis for drugs in driver’s license regranting. A Swedish pilot study. Forensic Sci. Int.196(1–3),55–58 (2010).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
129 Polla M, Stramesi C, Pichini S, Palmi I, Vignali C, Dall’olio G. Hair testing is superior to urine to disclose cocaine consumption in driver’s licence regranting. Forensic Sci. Int.189(1–3),e41–e43 (2009).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
130 Jones GR. Interpretation of postmortem drug levels. In: Postmortem Toxicology of Abused Drugs. Karch SB (Ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 115–120 (2008).Google Scholar
131 Kintz P, Ginet M, Cirimele V. Multi-element screening by ICP–MS of two specimens of Napoleon’s hair. J. Anal. Toxicol.30(8),621–623 (2006).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
132 Kintz P, Ginet M, Marques N, Cirimele V. Arsenic speciation of two specimens of Napoleon’s hair. Forensic Sci. Int.170(2–3),204–206 (2007).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
133 Smith H. The interpretation of the arsenic content of human hair. J. Forensic Sci. Soc.240,192–199 (1964).Crossref, Google Scholar
134 Smith RA. A method to distinguish between arsenic in and on human hair. Environ. Res.12(2),171–173 (1976).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar
135 Madry MM, Rust KY, Guglielmello R, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T. Metabolite to parent drug concentration ratios in hair for the differentiation of tramadol intake from external contamination and passive exposure. Forensic Sci. Int.223(1–3),330–334 (2012).Crossref, Medline, CAS, Google Scholar

- Cited By
  - Artificial neural networks applied to the classification of hair samples according to pigment and sex using non‐invasive analytical techniques
    9 June 2020 | X-Ray Spectrometry, Vol. 31
  - Approbation of identification and correction technology for dairy cows elementosis according to hair elemental composition
    Agrarian Bulletin of the, Vol. 196, No. 5
  - A review of bioanalytical techniques for evaluation of cannabis (Marijuana, weed, Hashish) in human hair
    14 August 2019 | BMC Chemistry, Vol. 13, No. 1
  - Current Understanding of Methamphetamine-Associated Metabolic Changes Revealed by the Metabolomics Approach
    20 September 2019 | Metabolites, Vol. 9, No. 10
  - Cocaine Hydroxy Metabolites in Hair: Indicators for Cocaine Use Versus External Contamination☆
    30 March 2019 | Journal of Analytical Toxicology, Vol. 43, No. 7
  - Correspondence between Oral Fluid Drug Test Results and Self-Reported Illicit Drug Use among Music Festival Attendees
    12 March 2019 | Substance Use & Misuse, Vol. 54, No. 8
  - Intra‐patient variability of the hair levels of pain medications in chronic migraine patients – a pilot study
    17 January 2019 | Drug Testing and Analysis, Vol. 11, No. 6
  - Hair Metabolomics in Animal Studies and Clinical Settings
    12 June 2019 | Molecules, Vol. 24, No. 12
  - A critical review of solid-phase microextraction applied in drugs of abuse determinations and potential applications for targeted doping testing
    TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 112
  - Green sample preparations for the bioanalysis of drugs of abuse in complex matrices
    Gabriela de Oliveira Silveira
    ,
    Ana Miguel Fonseca Pego
    ,
    Jefferson Pereira e Silva
    &
    Mauricio Yonamine
    21 January 2019 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 11, No. 4
  - Application of solid-phase microextraction in current biomedical research
    25 October 2018 | Journal of Separation Science, Vol. 42, No. 1
  - Doping control analysis of 121 prohibited substances in equine hair by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry
    Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, Vol. 158
  - Hair analysis to monitor adherence to prescribed chronic inhaler drug therapy in patients with asthma or COPD
    Pulmonary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Vol. 51
  - Keratinous matrices for the assessment of drugs of abuse consumption: A correlation study between hair and nails
    7 February 2018 | Drug Testing and Analysis, Vol. 10, No. 7
  - Toxicological hair analysis: Pre-analytical, analytical and interpretive aspects
    22 April 2018 | Medicine, Science and the Law, Vol. 58, No. 3
  - Toxic elements in hair and in vitro fertilization outcomes: A prospective cohort study
    Reproductive Toxicology, Vol. 77
  - Analysis of Drugs of Abuse in Hair Samples by Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS)
    6 July 2018
  - Hair levels of preexposure prophylaxis drugs measure adherence and are associated with renal decline among men/transwomen
    AIDS, Vol. 31, No. 16
  - Major Limitations in Using Element Concentrations in Hair as Biomarkers of Exposure to Toxic and Essential Trace Elements in Children
    Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 125, No. 6
  - Hair cortisol in the evaluation of Cushing syndrome
    13 February 2017 | Endocrine, Vol. 56, No. 1
  - Study of cocaine incorporation in hair damaged by cosmetic treatments
    Forensic Chemistry, Vol. 3
  - Forensic Toxicology of Decomposed Human Remains
    10 February 2017
  - Advances in Clinical Mass Spectrometry
  - Guidelines for Collection of Biological Samples for Clinical and Forensic Toxicological Analysis
    16 January 2017 | Forensic Sciences Research, Vol. 1, No. 1
  - Findings in the hair of drug abusers using pressurized liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction coupled in-line with capillary electrophoresis
    Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, Vol. 131
  - Current status of non-targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in forensic toxicology
    TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 84
  - Sports drug testing using complementary matrices: Advantages and limitations
    Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, Vol. 130
  - MALDI-MS drug analysis in biological samples: opportunities and challenges
    Andrea E Steuer
    ,
    Michael Poetzsch
    &
    Thomas Kraemer
    15 August 2016 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 8, No. 17
  - Alternative Sampling Strategies for Cytochrome P450 Phenotyping
    4 August 2015 | Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Vol. 55, No. 2
  - Ethyl glucuronide in nails: method validation, influence of decontamination and pulverization, and particle size evaluation
    24 December 2015 | Forensic Toxicology, Vol. 34, No. 1
  - Application of Bioanalytical Methods to Assess Medication Adherence in Clinical Settings
  - Recent progress in solid-phase microextraction and its pharmaceutical and biomedical applications
    1 January 2016 | Analytical Methods, Vol. 8, No. 29
  - Forensic Applications
    25 November 2015
  - HPLC Analysis of Antipsychotic Asenapine in Alternative Biomatrices: Hair and Nail Clippings
    13 November 2015 | Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies, Vol. 38, No. 18
  - Compound identification in forensic toxicological analysis with untargeted LC–MS-based techniques
    Herbert Oberacher
    &
    Kathrin Arnhard
    13 November 2015 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 7, No. 21
  - Multi-class method for biomonitoring of hair samples using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
    1 October 2015 | Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 407, No. 29
  - Review: Drug concentrations in hair and their relevance in drug facilitated crimes
    Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, Vol. 36
  - An optimized and validated SPE-LC–MS/MS method for the determination of caffeine and paraxanthine in hair
    Talanta, Vol. 144
  - Meconium as an alternative matrix in bioanalysis
    27 October 2015
  - Urinary bromophenol glucuronide and sulfate conjugates: Potential human exposure molecular markers for polybrominated diphenyl ethers
    Chemosphere, Vol. 133
  - Paraxanthine/Caffeine Concentration Ratios in Hair: An Alternative for Plasma-Based Phenotyping of Cytochrome P450 1A2?
    21 January 2015 | Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Vol. 54, No. 7
  - Determination of cocaine in abuser hairs by CE: monitoring compliance to a detoxification program
    Tatiana Baciu
    ,
    Francesc Borrull
    ,
    Marta Calull
    &
    Carme Aguilar
    6 March 2015 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 7, No. 4
  - An LC–MS/MS method for the determination of five erectile dysfunction drugs and their selected metabolites in hair
    Journal of Chromatography B, Vol. 978-979
  - Heterogeneous and homogeneous immunoassays for drug analysis
    Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
    8 December 2014 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 6, No. 21
  - Recent trends in analytical methods and separation techniques for drugs of abuse in hair
    Analytica Chimica Acta
  - In vivo and ex vivo SPME: a low invasive sampling and sample preparation tool in clinical bioanalysis
    Barbara Bojko
    &
    Janusz Pawliszyn
    20 June 2014 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 6, No. 9
  - Deposition of JWH-018, JWH-073 and their metabolites in hair and effect of hair pigmentation
    27 October 2013 | Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 405, No. 30
  - Simple segmental hair analysis for α-pyrrolidinophenone-type designer drugs by MonoSpin extraction for evaluation of abuse history
    Journal of Chromatography B, Vol. 942-943
  - Matrix solid phase dispersion assisted enzymatic hydrolysis as a novel approach for cocaine and opiates isolation from human hair
    Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 1316
  - Bioanalysis annual round-up: The Bioanalysis Editorial team is delighted to welcome you to this mid-year round-up
    23 September 2013 | Bioanalysis, Vol. 5, No. 18
  - Forensic toxicology in drug-facilitated sexual assault
    20 May 2013 | Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, Vol. 23, No. 7
  - Simultaneous quantification of tramadol and O -desmethyltramadol in hair samples by gas chromatography-electron impact/mass spectrometry
    21 March 2013 | Biomedical Chromatography, Vol. 27, No. 8
Vol. 5, No. 8
Follow us on social media for the latest updates

Metrics
Downloaded 342 times

History

Published online 16 April 2013

Published in print April 2013

Information
© Future Science Ltd
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the proofreading contribution by the English teacher CD Oliveira.
Financial & competing interests disclosure
R Dinis-Oliveira acknowledges Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia for his Post-Doc grant (SFRH/BPD/36865/2007). The authors have no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed. No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.
Loading ...