Abstract
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3-PUFAs) are dietary components that have been extensively recognized for their therapeutic value and have shown diverse therapeutic effects including anti-inflammatory, antiarrhythmic, antithrombotic, immunomodulatory and antineoplastic activities. Most of the ω-3-PUFAs are obtained through diet or supplements because the body does not synthesize them. The high instability of ω-3-PUFAs to oxidative deterioration, lower bioavailability at the target tissues and reduced bioactivity of ω-3-PUFAs is an impediment for achieving their therapeutic potential. The present review provides an overview of potential therapeutic activities of ω-3-PUFAs and different novel technical approaches based on nanotechnology, which have been emphasized to overcome instability problems as well as enhance the bioactivity of ω-3-PUFAs. Future prospects related to this area of research are also provided.
Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest; •• of considerable interest
References
- 1. . Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and immunity. Lipids 36(9), 1007–1024 (2001).
- 2. . Omega-3 fatty acids. Am. Fam. Phys. 70(1), 133–140 (2004).
- 3. . Long-chain omega 3 fatty acids, blood lipids and cardiovascular risk reduction. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 12(1), 11–17 (2001).
- 4. . Omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk: clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis 197(1), 12–24 (2008).
- 5. . Pharmacology and therapeutic potential of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in fish oils. Indian J. Pharmacol. 31(4), 247–264 (1999).
- 6. . Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 21(6), 495–505 (2002).
- 7. . Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory diseases. Biomed. Pharmacother. 56(8), 388–396 (2002).
- 8. . Interactions between dietary fat, fish, and fish oils and their effects on platelet function in men at risk of cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17(2), 279–286 (1997).
- 9. . Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammation. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 6(6), 461–467 (2004).
- 10. . Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71(1 Suppl.), 171S–175S (2000). • Describes the health benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3-PUFAs).
- 11. Eicosapolyenoic acids of serum lipids of Japanese islanders with low incidence of cardiovascular diseases. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol (Tokyo). 28(4), 441–453 (1982).
- 12. . Lipid metabolism and ischemic heart disease in Greenland Eskimos. In: Adv. Nutr. Draper HH (Ed.). Springer, 1–22 (1980) .
- 13. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet 2(8666), 757–761 (1989).
- 14. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet 369(9567), 1090–1098 (2007).
- 15. . Pro- and antiarrhythmic properties of a diet rich in fish oil. Cardiovasc. Res. 73(2), 316–325 (2007).
- 16. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiac arrhythmias: prior studies and recommendations for future research: a report from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Office Of Dietary Supplements Omega-3 Fatty Acids and their Role in Cardiac Arrhythmogenesis Workshop. Circulation 116(10), e320–e335 (2007).
- 17. . Effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on cardiac voltage-activated K(+) currents in adult ferret cardiomyocytes. Sheng Li Xue Bao 54(4), 271–281 (2002).
- 18. . n-3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65(5 Suppl.), 1645S–1654S (1997).
- 19. . Dietary fats and hypertension. Focus on fish oil. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 827, 339–352 (1997). • Describes the importance of ω-3-PUFAs and their role in maintaining blood pressure.
- 20. . Does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Circulation 88(2), 523–533 (1993).
- 21. . Does supplementation of diet with ‘fish oil’ reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Arch. Intern. Med. 153(12), 1429–1438 (1993).
- 22. Marine-derived n-3 fatty acids and atherosclerosis in Japanese, Japanese–American, and white men: a cross-sectional study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 52(6), 417–424 (2008).
- 23. . Dietary modulation of endothelial function: implications for cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73(4), 673–686 (2001).
- 24. . Cardiovascular effects of n-3 fatty acids. New Engl. J. Med. 318(9), 549–557 (1988).
- 25. . Dietary fish oil modulates macrophage fatty acids and decreases arthritis susceptibility in mice. J. Exp. Med. 162(4), 1336–1349 (1985).
- 26. Dietary fish oil and olive oil supplementation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and immunologic effects. Arthritis Rheum. 33(6), 810–820 (1990).
- 27. . Efficacy of fish oil concentrate in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 27(10), 2343–2346 (2000). • Describes the importance of fish oil in the management of rheumatoid arthritis.
- 28. . The role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 38(Suppl 2), 3–7 (1999).
- 29. . Clinical and biochemical effects of dietary fish oil supplements in rheumatoid arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 15(10), 1471–1475 (1988).
- 30. . Effects of fish oil supplementation in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 49(2), 76–80 (1990).
- 31. . Vitamin E status during dietary fish oil supplementation in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 33(9), 1416–1419 (1990).
- 32. Decreased interleukin-1 beta levels in plasma from rheumatoid arthritis patients after dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Clin. Rheumatol. 11(3), 393–395 (1992).
- 33. Effects of dietary supplementation with marine fish oil on leukocyte lipid mediator generation and function in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 30(9), 988–997 (1987).
- 34. . Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis. Arch. Med. Res. 43(5), 356–362 (2012).
- 35. . A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain. Pain 129(1-2), 210–223 (2007).
- 36. . Dietary fish oil reduces progression of chronic inflammatory lesions in a rat model of granulomatous colitis. Gut 31(5), 539–544 (1990).
- 37. Treatment of ulcerative colitis with fish oil supplementation: a prospective 12 month randomised controlled trial. Gut 33(7), 922–928 (1992).
- 38. . Incorporation of fatty acids from fish oil and olive oil into colonic mucosal lipids and effects upon eicosanoid synthesis in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 32(10), 1151–1155 (1991).
- 39. . Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the aetiology of ulcerative colitis: a UK prospective cohort study. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 22(5), 602–606 (2010).
- 40. . Decreased oxidative stress in patients with ulcerative colitis supplemented with fish oil omega-3 fatty acids. Nutrition 19(10), 837–842 (2003).
- 41. . Cysteinyl leukotriene receptors, old and new; implications for asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 42(9), 1313–1320 (2012).
- 42. . Role of omega-3 fatty acids and their metabolites in asthma and allergic diseases. Allergol. Int. 64(1), 27–34 (2015).
- 43. . Fat-1 transgenic mice with elevated omega-3 fatty acids are protected from allergic airway responses. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1812(9), 1164–1169 (2011).
- 44. . Docosahexaenoic acid derivative prevents inflammation and hyperreactivity in lung: implication of PKC-potentiated inhibitory protein for heterotrimeric myosin light chain phosphatase of 17 kD in asthma. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 45(2), 366–375 (2011).
- 45. . MAG-EPA resolves lung inflammation in an allergic model of asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 43(9), 1071–1082 (2013).
- 46. Effect of aerosolized docosahexaenoic acid in a mouse model of atopic asthma. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 123(4), 327–332 (2000).
- 47. Intakes of long-chain omega-3 (n-3) PUFAs and fish in relation to incidence of asthma among American young adults: the CARDIA study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 97(1), 173–178 (2013).
- 48. Omega-3 fatty acids as pharmacotherapeutics in psoriasis: current status and scope of nanomedicine in its effective delivery. Curr. Drug Targets 14(6), 708–722 (2013). •• Provides an informative overview on recent nanomedicine advancements of ω-3-PUFAs.
- 49. The effects of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on the composition of nerve membranes, enzymatic activity, amplitude of electrophysiological parameters, resistance to poisons and performance of learning tasks in rats. Nutr. J. 119(12), 1880–1892 (1989).
- 50. Reduced G protein-coupled signaling efficiency in retinal rod outer segments in response to n-3 fatty acid deficiency. J. Biol. Chem. 279(30), 31098–31104 (2004).
- 51. . Effects of supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cognitive performance and cardiometabolic risk markers in healthy 51 to 72 years old subjects: a randomized controlled cross-over study. Nutr. J. 11, 99 (2012).
- 52. . Dietary intake of fatty acids and fish in relation to cognitive performance at middle age. Neurology 62(2), 275–280 (2004).
- 53. . Docosahexaenoic acid-induced protective effect against impaired learning in amyloid beta-infused rats is associated with increased synaptosomal membrane fluidity. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 33(10), 934–939 (2006).
- 54. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid ameliorate amyloid-beta and tau pathology via a mechanism involving presenilin 1 levels. J. Neurosci. 27(16), 4385–4395 (2007).
- 55. Omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid increases SorLA/LR11, a sorting protein with reduced expression in sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD): relevance to AD prevention. J. Neurosci. 27(52), 14299–14307 (2007).
- 56. . Omega-3 Fatty acids and cancer cell cytotoxicity: implications for multi-targeted cancer therapy. J. Clin. Med. 5(2), pii: E15 (2016).
- 57. . Multi-targeted therapy of cancer by omega-3 fatty acids. Cancer Lett. 269(2), 363–377 (2008).
- 58. . The potential for treatment with dietary long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids during chemotherapy. J. Nutr. Biochem. 19(12), 787–796 (2008).
- 59. . Omega-3 supplements for patients in chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy: a systematic review. Clin. Nutr. 34(3), 359–366 (2015).
- 60. . The powerful applications of polyunsaturated fatty acids in improving the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs. Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 9(1), 1–7 (2012).
- 61. N-3 PUFAs have antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on human colorectal cancer stem-like cells in vitro. J. Nutr. Biochem. 24(5), 744–753 (2013).
- 62. . Dietary ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid DHA: a potential adjuvant in the treatment of cancer. Biomed. Res. Int. 2013, 310186 (2013). •• Explains the role of ω-3-PUFAs as a potential therapeutics adjuvant in cancer treatment.
- 63. . Anticancer properties of oxidation products of docosahexaenoic acid. Chem. Phys. Lipids 153(1), 47–56 (2008).
- 64. . Docosahexaenoic acid: a natural powerful adjuvant that improves efficacy for anticancer treatment with no adverse effects. BioFactors 37(6), 399–412 (2011).
- 65. . Apoptotic death of pancreatic cancer cells induced by polyunsaturated fatty acids varies with double bond number and involves an oxidative mechanism. J. Pathol. 185(1), 61–70 (1998).
- 66. . Effects of fatty acids and inhibitors of eicosanoid synthesis on the growth of a human breast cancer cell line in culture. Cancer Res. 50(22), 7139–7144 (1990).
- 67. . Eicosapentaenoic acid promotes apoptosis in Ramos cells via activation of caspase-3 and -9. Lipids 37(8), 797–802 (2002).
- 68. . Dietary fat and breast cancer metastasis by human tumor xenografts. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 46(2-3), 225–237 (1997).
- 69. The effects of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on the DU-145 transplantable human prostatic tumor. Anticancer Res. 7(6), 1173–1179 (1987).
- 70. . Effects of dietary menhaden oil and retinyl acetate on the growth of DU 145 human prostatic adenocarcinoma cells transplanted into athymic nude mice. Carcinogenesi. 9(4), 603–605 (1988).
- 71. Effect of altering dietary omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratios on prostate cancer membrane composition, cyclooxygenase-2, and prostaglandin E2. Clin. Cancer Res. 12(15), 4662–4670 (2006).
- 72. Opposing effects of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on pancreatic cancer growth. Pancreas 36(4), 353–362 (2008).
- 73. . Omega-3s in food emulsions: overview and case studies. Agro Food Ind. Hi-Tech. 19(5), 9–13 (2008).
- 74. . The trouble with omega-3 oils. Funct. Ingred. 26–28 (2006).
- 75. . Challenges for the delivery of long-chain n-3 fatty acids in functional foods. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 3, 105–123 (2012).
- 76. . Studies on the Antioxidant Activity of Milk Proteins in Model Oil-in-Water Emulsions: A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology, Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand (PhD dissertation). Massey University (2009).
- 77. . Encapsulation of food ingredients. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 33(6), 501–547 (1993).
- 78. . Means of delivering recommended levels of long chain n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in human diets. J. Food Sci. 71(5), R66–R71 (2006).
- 79. . Engineering of an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing nanoemulsion system for combination C6-ceramide and 17beta-estradiol delivery and bioactivity in human vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Nanomedicine 9(7), 885–894 (2013). •• Describes the nanoencapsulation technique (nanoemulsion) and enhanced bioactivity of ω-3-PUFAs.
- 80. . Docosahexaenoic acid-mediated, targeted and sustained brain delivery of curcumin microemulsion. Drug Deliv. 24(1), 152–161 (2017).
- 81. . Therapeutic efficacy of an omega-3-fatty acid-containing 17-beta estradiol nano-delivery system against experimental atherosclerosis. PLoS One 11(2), e0147337 (2016).
- 82. Nanoemulsion-enabled oral delivery of novel anticancer omega-3 fatty acid derivatives. Nanomaterials (Basel) 8(10), (2018).
- 83. Biodistribution and pharmacokinetic evaluations of a novel taxoid DHA-SBT-1214 in an oil-in-water nanoemulsion formulation in naive and tumor-bearing mice. Pharm. Res. 35(4), 91 (2018).
- 84. . Nanoemulsion formulation of a novel taxoid DHA-SBT-1214 inhibits prostate cancer stem cell-induced tumor growth. Cancer Lett. 406, 71–80 (2017).
- 85. . Low-density lipoprotein docosahexaenoic acid nanoparticles induce ferroptotic cell death in hepatocellular carcinoma. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 112, 597–607 (2017).
- 86. . Low-density lipoprotein-mediated delivery of docosahexaenoic acid selectively kills murine liver cancer cells. Nanomedicine 14), 2123–2141 (2014).
- 87. Hepatic arterial infusion of low-density lipoprotein docosahexaenoic acid nanoparticles selectively disrupts redox balance in hepatoma cells and reduces growth of orthotopic liver tumors in rats. Gastroenterology 150(2), 488–498 (2016).
- 88. . Investigation into the distinct subcellular effects of docosahexaenoic acid loaded low-density lipoprotein nanoparticles in normal and malignant murine liver cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1860(11 Pt A), 2363–2376 (2016).
- 89. . Docetaxel-loaded bovine serum albumin nanoparticles conjugated docosahexaenoic acid for inhibiting lung cancer metastasis to bone. Anticancer Agents Med. Chem. 17(4), 542–551 (2017).
- 90. Synthesis of docosahexaenoic acid-loaded silver nanoparticles for improving endothelial dysfunctions in experimental diabetes. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 38(8), 962–973 (2019).
- 91. . In vitro modulation of TrkB receptor signaling upon sequential delivery of curcumin-DHA loaded carriers towards promoting neuronal survival. Pharm. Res. 34(2), 492–505 (2017).
- 92. Polymeric nanocapsules prevent oxidation of core-loaded molecules: evidence based on the effects of docosahexaenoic acid and neuroprostane on breast cancer cells proliferation. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 34, 155 (2015).
- 93. . Targeted nano-delivery of novel omega-3 conjugate against hepatocellular carcinoma: Regulating COX-2/bcl-2 expression in an animal model. Biomed. Pharmacother. 81, 394–401 (2016).
- 94. . Docosahexaenoic acid liposomes for targeting chronic inflammatory diseases and cancer: an in vitro assessment. Int. J. Nanomedicine 11, 5027–5040 (2016).
- 95. A novel biologically active acid stable liposomal formulation of docosahexaenoic acid in human breast cancer cell lines. Chem. Biol. Interact. 252, 1–8 (2016).
- 96. . New approach to improve encapsulation and antitumor activity of doxorubicin loaded in solid lipid nanoparticles. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 48(1-2), 282–290 (2013).
- 97. . Omega-3 fatty acid-containing liposomes in cancer therapy. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 210(3), 227–233 (1995).
- 98. . Magnetoliposomes loaded with poly-unsaturated fatty acids as novel theranostic anti-inflammatory formulations. Theranostics 5(5), 489–503 (2015). •• Explains the role of ω-3-PUFAs magnetoliposome for anti-inflammatory activity.
- 99. . alpha-Tocopheryl linolenate solid lipid nanoparticles for the encapsulation, protection, and release of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid: in vitro anti-melanoma activity evaluation. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 151, 128–133 (2017).
- 100. . Omega-3 PUFA loaded in resveratrol-based solid lipid nanoparticles: physicochemical properties and antineoplastic activities in human colorectal cancer cells in vitro. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 19(2), E586 (2018).
- 101. . A solid lipid nanoparticle formulation of 4-(N)-docosahexaenoyl 2′, 2′-difluorodeoxycytidine with increased solubility, stability, and antitumor activity. Int. J. Pharm. 570, 118609 (2019).
- 102. . Omega-3 fatty acid based nanolipid formulation of atorvastatin for treating hyperlipidemia. Adv. Pharm. Bull. 9(2), 271–280 (2019).
- 103. . Improved in vivo performance and immunomodulatory effect of novel Omega-3 fatty acid based Tacrolimus nanostructured lipid carrier. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 52, 138–149 (2019).
- 104. . Curcumin-and fish oil-loaded spongosome and cubosome nanoparticles with neuroprotective potential against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in differentiated human SH-SY5Y cells. ACS Omega. 4(2), 3061–3073 (2019).
- 105. . Microencapsulation of omega-3 fatty acids: a review of microencapsulation and characterization methods. J. Funct. Foods. 19, 868–881 (2015).
- 106. . Microcapsules for food. J. Microencapsul. 10(4), 413–435 (1993).
- 107. . Encapsulation: overview of uses and techniques. In: Encapsulation and Controlled Release of Food Ingredients. Risch JSGary A (Eds). Reineccius publisher: American Chemical Society, Washington DC, USA (1995).
- 108. . Applications of spray-drying in microencapsulation of food ingredients: An overview. Food Res. Int. 40(9), 1107–1121 (2007).
- 109. . An overview of encapsulation technologies for food applications. Procedia Food Sci. 1, 1806–1815 (2011).
- 110. . Encapsulation efficiency and oxidative stability of flaxseed oil microencapsulated by spray drying using different combinations of wall materials. J. Food Eng. 115(4), 443–451 (2013).
- 111. . Spray‐dried encapsulation of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) with polymeric matrices. J. Sci. Food Agric. 86(14), 2431–2437 (2006).
- 112. . Nano-particle encapsulation of fish oil by spray drying. Food Res. Int. 41(2), 172–183 (2008).
- 113. . Influence of emulsion composition and inlet air temperature on the microencapsulation of flaxseed oil by spray drying. Food Res. Int. 44(1), 282–289 (2011).
- 114. . Food powder microencapsulation: principles, problems and opportunities. Appl. Biotechnol. Food Sci. Policy 1(2), 75–94 (2003).
- 115. Transformation of curcumin from food additive to multifunctional medicine: nanotechnology bridging the gap. Curr. Drug Discov. Technol. 11(3), 197–213 (2014).
- 116. Progress in nanotechnology-based drug carrier in designing of curcumin nanomedicines for cancer therapy: current state-of-the-art. J. Drug Target 24(4), 273–293 (2016). • Detailed review on the application of nanotechnology in the field of therapeutic delivery of curcumin.
- 117. . Nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for polyunsaturated (omega-3) oils: formation using a spontaneous emulsification method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 62(7), 1720–1725 (2014).
- 118. . Development of food-grade nanoemulsions and emulsions for delivery of omega-3 fatty acids: opportunities and obstacles in the food industry. Food Funct. 6(1), 42–55 (2015).
- 119. . Food-grade nanoemulsions: formulation, fabrication, properties, performance, biological fate, and potential toxicity. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 51(4), 285–330 (2011).
- 120. . Edible nanoemulsions: fabrication, properties, and functional performance. Soft Matter. 7(6), 2297–2316 (2011).
- 121. . Formation of nano-emulsions by low-energy emulsification methods at constant temperature. Langmuir 17(7), 2076–2083 (2001).
- 122. . Design and production of nanoparticles formulated from nano-emulsion templates-a review. J. Control. Rel. 128(3), 185–199 (2008).
- 123. . Comparative study of gastrointestinal absorption of EPA & DHA rich fish oil from nano and conventional emulsion formulation in rats. Food Res. Int. 49(1), 72–79 (2012).
- 124. . Oxidative kinetics of salmon oil in bulk and in nanoemulsion stabilized by marine lecithin. Process. Biochem. 45(2), 187–195 (2010).
- 125. . Preparation of nanoemulsions containing unsaturated fatty acid concentrate-chitosan capsules. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 445, 137–142 (2015).
- 126. . Physical stability, autoxidation, and photosensitized oxidation of omega-3 oils in nanoemulsions prepared with natural and synthetic surfactants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 63(42), 9333–9340 (2015).
- 127. . Omega 3 fatty acid-enriched nanoemulsion of thiocolchicoside for transdermal delivery: formulation, characterization and absorption studies. Drug Deliv. 23(2), 591–600 (2016).
- 128. Solid lipid nanoparticles: emerging colloidal nano drug delivery systems. Pharmaceutics. 10(4), (2018).
- 129. . Solid lipid nanoparticles as drug delivery systems. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 27(2), 127–144 (2005).
- 130. . Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC): a potential delivery system for bioactive food molecules. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 19, 29–43 (2013).
- 131. . Nanostructured lipid matrices for improved microencapsulation of drugs. Int. J. Pharm. 242(1-2), 121–128 (2002).
- 132. . Preparation, physicochemical characterization and oxidative stability of omega-3 fish oil/alpha-tocopherol-co-loaded nanostructured lipidic carriers. Adv. Pharm. Bull. 9(3), 393–400 (2019).
- 133. . The structure of the liquid–crystalline phasis of lipid–water systems. J. Cell. Biol. 12, 207–219 (1962).
- 134. . Cubosomes: an overview. Biol. Pharm. Bull 30(2), 350–353 (2007).
- 135. . Effect of lipase on monoolein-based cubic phase dispersion (cubosomes) and vesicles. J. Phys. Chem. B. 106(40), 10492–10500 (2002). •• Explains the formulation and evaluation of ω-3-PUFAs loaded cubosome.
- 136. . Surfactant self-assembly objects as novel drug delivery vehicles. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 4(6), 449–456 (1999).
- 137. . Self-diffusion in bicontinuous cubic phases, L3 phases, and microemulsions. J. Phys. Chem. 94(24), 8683–8694 (1990).
- 138. . Progress in liquid crystalline dispersions: cubosomes. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 10(5-6), 274–279 (2005).
- 139. . A vesicle-to-sponge transition via the proliferation of membrane-linking pores in ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid-containing lipid assemblies. J. Mol. 279, 518–523 (2019).
- 140. . Liquid crystalline nanostructures as pegylated reservoirs of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Structural insights toward delivery formulations against neurodegenerative disorders. ACS Omega. 3(3), 3235–3247 (2018).